Pankhurst Corner

It is commonly said that World War II started in 1939 and ended in 1945, but for Ethiopia the Fascist aggression began earlier with Mussolini's invasion in 1935. As detailed in two soon to be re- issued books of the time by a South African-born journalist, what followed was half a decade of isolated resistance by Ethiopian patriots, including an exceptionally daring attempt to recapture Addis Ababa.
By Professor Richard Pankhurst,

I am writing these lines, Dear Reader, in London, where the newspapers and other media have been celebrating what they consider the anniversary of the opening of World War II on September 3, 1939. It is a nostalgic time in Britain, the more so as the country is currently enmeshed in a bloody and in all likelihood unwinnable Afghan war.Historically, World War II started for different people at different times. For Britain, it is true, it began on September 3, 1939, when the then British Prime Minister, Neville Chamberlain, made his famous broadcast declaring that his country was at war with Nazi Germany - though we are told that he did not record this fact in his diary until the following day, September 4. He later spoke of Hitler "missing the bus" - though many thought that it was Chamberlain himself who had in fact failed to catch it.Despite the above multiple-dating there can be no denying that for Poland fighting had clearly began a few days earlier, on September 1, 1939, and Mussolini, Dear Reader, though speaking of his country's pre-belligerency, did not in fact announce Italy's actual involvement in war until 10 July 1940 - when he declared war on Britain and France. Albania, however, had been attacked by Fascist Italy in the previous year, 1939. And the two Great Powers, the United States and the Soviet Union, did not enter the war until 1941, when both were suddenly attacked - without any warning - by Germany and Japan respectively.You can, it should be evident, thus choose your date for the beginning of the war: giving it as 1939, 1940, 1941 - or what you will.***Ethiopia, like the above-mentioned countries, has its own unmistakable date for the opening of hostilities - 1935, which is interesting in that it is the earliest of the possible dates on record.Because the Ethiopian date was the earliest we would favour using it to date the beginning of the war as a whole, i.e. October 3, 1935, when Italian Fascist forces attacked Ethiopia. This date has actively been canvassed by none other than Ato Zaude Haile Mariam, the son of Haile Mariam Mammo, a notable Ethiopian patriot, who has often been described as the First Patriot of Shoa.And I made the additional point, in the briefest of all possible letters published in the London Independent last week, that the invasion of Ethiopia in 1935 was historically important in spelling the demise of the League of Nations. ***The origins of Ethiopia's part of what Zaude Haile Mariam unashamedly describes as his country's part in World War II are conventionally seen in the rise in 1922 of Fascism - which destroyed previous Ethio-Italian friendship, and led Italy into aggression against Ethiopia. We know from the published memoirs of the Fascist commander Emilio De Bono that it was as early as 1933 when Mussolini disclosed to him his intention of invading Ethiopia. Efforts were then accelerated to turn the previously peaceful Italian colonies of Eritrea and Somalia into bases for aggression and war against Ethiopia. Roads and harbours were expanded, and army and air force bases established.Then followed the Wal Wal incident of December 1934 when an Italian force infiltrating from Italian Somalia clashed with an Ethiopian force some hundred kilometres within Ethiopian territory. Mussolini used this incident as his excuse for beginning his invasion of Ethiopia, which opened - without any declaration of war - on October 3, 1936 - Zaude Haile Mariam's date for the commencement of World War II,On that day the Fascist Air Force bombed Adwa - for sentimental reasons; and eleven days later the League of Nations ruled that Fascist Italy was guilty of having resorted to war in disregard of the League Covenant. This decision was made with only one contrary vote - that of Fascist Italy itself; and three abstentions: Albania - which was soon to be invaded by Fascist Italy; Austria, which was soon to be annexed by Nazi Germany; and Hungary of which the less said, Dear Friends, the better.Then followed the imposition of League of Nations Sanctions against the aggressor - sanctions which the renowned British economist Lord Keynes described as "comparatively mild economic sanctions".And then followed the Anglo-French compromise talks, conducted by the British Foreign Secretary, Sir John Simon - who was soon obliged to resign as a result of the indignation with which his policies were viewed by British public opinion. And on the French side by Pierre Laval - of whom a critic said: "his hair was black; his face was black; his heart was black". Those were the days of course, Dear Reader, before people held that "Black is Beautiful".***The War in Ethiopia was characterized by overwhelming Fascist superiority of weapons, cannons, machine-guns and tanks, and almost complete control of the air - as well as the widespread use of poison-gas, which proved decisive in defeating the Ethiopian armies of defence. Ethiopian resistance in the north was initially led, in the autumn of 1935 and the spring of 1936, by three traditional leaders, Ras Seyoum, Ras Imru, and Ras Kasa - under the overall nominal command of the aged Minister of War, Ras Mullugeta. They were eventually forced to withdraw, after which Emperor Haile Selassie bore the main brunt of the invasion, and was defeated at Mai Chaw at the end of March 1936 - after which the Fascist army advanced, to occupy Addis Ababa on 5 May 1936.The Patriots, however, continued their resistance to the invaders until Mussolini's declaration of war on Britain and France, on 10 June 1940, brought the two latter countries into the struggle on Ethiopia's side. France, however, effectively only for a short while.One incident in the Patriots' lone struggle from 1936 to 1940 deserves special attention - this was these freedom fighters' attempt to re-capture Addis Ababa during the summer of 1936. They failed, because they were defeated by the Occupying Forces' complete control of the air - but their attempt was however memorable, as well as something unique in World War II. None of the other Allies, the Free French, the Free Belgians or the Free what-have-you ever envisaged let alone attempted so daring an enterprise as the re-capture of their former capitals. For details of the struggle, as seen at the time, I would recommend to you the two books, Dear Reader, of the veteran South African-born journalist George Steer: Caesar in Abyssinia and Sealed and Delivered. Originally published in 1936 and 1941 respectively, both are highly illuminating works, and will be re-issued in London, by Faber and Faber, next month.

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